Effects of Gonadal Steroids on Mood
Some good circumstantial evidence for a role of gonadal steroids to modulate mood.
A large proportion of women note some changes in mood around time of menstruation.
A large proportion of women note some changes in mood shortly after child birth.
A large proportion of women note some changes in mood around the period of menopause.
Some women report changes in mood when first starting or ending oral contraceptive use.
Most individuals describe these mood changes associated with changing gonadal steroid levels as not being severe. But a small subset of individuals report severe, sometimes incapacitating effects of hormonal changes on mood.
Also, note that for psychological disorders there are some notable gender differences in incidence.
Higher incidence in women: major depressive disorder (2:1), rapid cycling bipolar disorder, seasonal affective disorder (3.5:1), agoraphobia, panic disorder; no gender difference in eating disorder before puberty, post puberty greater in females (9:1 bulimia; 19:1 anorexia).
Note: in general, studies indicate that women eat more during luteal phase, especially carbohydrates.
Higher incidence in males: social anxiety disorder, antisocial personality disorder, alcohol related-disorders.
Also, psychological disorders (e.g. major depressive disorder, schizophrenia) and certain medical conditions (e.g. migraine, asthma, allergies and seizure disorder, cancer, and some infections) can be exacerbated in women during menstrual period.
Perimenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
Prevalence: Depending on the study, 20-90% of women in North America report some symptoms of psychological and physiological distress associated with menstruation.
Severe symptoms in 2-10% of women
Symptoms:
Premenstrual (late luteal phase) Dysphoric Disorder
Condition described in DSM-IV
Hormonal Correlates:
Is PMS a result of changing activational effects of hormones?
The disorder is defined by its association with a specific phase of the menstrual cycle, so there is a clear correlation between the symptoms and the gonadal steroid hormone profile present during the late luteal phase. However, there is little evidence that individuals with more severe symptoms have different estrogen and progesterone levels than individuals experiencing only mild symptoms.
Related possibilities:
1] there may be subtle hormone differences that haven’t yet been identified
2] there may be a difference in sensitivity (e.g. different hormone receptor expression levels) to gonadal steroids
Treatment Strategies:
Blocking luteal phase— (with progesterone antagonist) not very effective
Blocking entire cycle— (with GnRH agonist) some effectiveness
Progesterone + thyroid hormone treatment— very effective in some cases
Effects of anabolic steroids on mood and aggression:
The primary hormone associated with "aggression" is testosterone. There is a clear association/correlation between androgen levels and aggression that holds up for a number of mammalian species, including humans.
Aggression/violent behavior in males increases with the onset of puberty; for most species there is greater aggression in males than females; and for some species there are large seasonal differences in aggression that correlate with background androgen levels.
This general correlation holds true for humans. There's many more violent crimes committed by men than women, and studies have found that chemical castration significantly decreases violent acts or violent thoughts in criminal men.
But there is not a simple correlation between circulating androgen levels and aggressive behavior in men (although a significant—but weak—correlation has been found in teens).
Thus, in humans, endogenous levels of testosterone may have a permissive effect on aggression.
Prevalence of use:
National Household Survey on Drug Abuse 1991
Surveyed randomly, stratified chosen homes throughout US. Interviewed all family members over 12 years old (total of 32,394)
Estimate that there are approx. 1 million anabolic steroid users in US.
approx. 1% of all males and .1% of all females
Greatest use in age range of 18-25.
Interestingly, there was significantly higher illicit drug use, alcohol use, smoking, and acts of aggression reported by steroid users than non-steroid users.
Studies
Does anabolic steroid use change levels of aggression and other personality variables?
Experimental results are not clear cut
Are anabolic steroids "addictive"?
There is some support for “dependence” and withdrawal symptoms.